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 Paganism |
 Wicca |
 Druidism |
 Shamanism |
 Kabbalah |
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PaganismPaganism is a broad, eclectic modern religious movement that encompasses shamanistic, ecstatic, polytheistic, and magical religions. Most of the religions termed Pagan are characterized by nature-centered spirituality, honoring of pre-Christian deities, dynamic, personal belief systems, lack of institutionalization, a quest to develop the self, and acceptance and encouragement of diversity. Paganism is sometimes referred to as Neo-Paganism to emphasize its connections to as well as difference from pre-Christian religions. Paganism is a worldwide phenomenon and includes revived and updated ancient European practices and religions, feminist Goddess-worship, and religions inspired by science-fiction writings. For their inspiration, Pagans look to non-Abrahamic, ecstatic, and mystery religions of Europe as well as indigenous and magic-using traditions from around the world. Modern Paganism is interwoven with artistic, visionary, and libertarian traditions and emphasizes the free will of the individual. Many traditions celebrate rituals to mark transitions in the natural world (such as solstices, lunar phases, or a birth) as well as in a person's life (such as marriage or moving to a new home). While the largest segment of the Pagan population is white and middle class, Paganism cuts across all lines, whether racial, occupational, or class- or gender-based. Most Pagans, however, are avid readers with interests in ecology, creativity, and personal growth. Many come from the scientific, computer, and technical fields. Since it is not an organized movement, it is very difficult to determine the number of its practitioners, but it is estimated that there are perhaps 100,000 in the U.S. alone. Some have termed Paganism the fastest growing religion in the West.
History & StructurePaganism as a movement grew out of the growing environmental awareness in the 1960s, though it encompasses some traditions from the Middle Ages and earlier. Since most Pagan religions are nature-centered, Pagans rethink the way in which we relate to the Earth. Rather than seek dominance over the environment, Pagans work to live as a part of Nature, finding a balance between the self, the biosphere, and society. Part of this rethinking goes along with the resurgence of Goddess-worship, which is widespread in the Pagan movement. Many Pagans look to the fertility Goddesses of old and find vibrant, dynamic models for ecological balance. The myriad Goddesses from the past also provide Pagans with a vision of powerful feminine divinity which is missing from other Western religions.The Pagan movement has become somewhat coherent largely through networks, journals, and festivals. But it is not unified or structured - herein lies some of its greatest appeal. Pagans believe profoundly in freedom and the power of the individual. People are encouraged to explore paths that are most helpful to them, rather than conform to a specific code of beliefs. Through magazine columns and personal contact, Pagans participate in a dynamic marketplace of ideas, where each person is encouraged to contribute and to take away what is most appropriate for him or her. Rather than structuring the community around a particular set of beliefs or symbols, Pagans concentrate on process to create community. A variety of practices are used to fulfill spiritual needs, heal, or create change. Each person's particular technique is honored in the understanding that our aims are often the same. Most Pagans abide by some form of "If it harm none, do what you will." There are no charismatic gurus in Paganism. Pagans do not seek to convert others. Each Pagan is independent and autonomous, even when working in groups. All value choosing one's own path and beliefs. There is no one spokesperson for Paganism. One of the most characteristic elements of Pagan religions is their adaptability. In the case of nature-based religions, some will differ from others simply because their practitioners live in different parts of the country. For instance, a system that includes rituals celebrating snowfall would be inappropriate for people in areas where it doesn't snow. Pagans believe that religions must change to meet the needs of people on an everyday basis. While some Pagan religions can be quite esoteric, most Pagan beliefs and practices are rooted in everyday, natural experience. Myths, rituals, and techniques are adapted to meet particular needs. Some Pagan Systems and ReligionsMost American Pagans practice a blend of different traditions, the most popular of which are Celtic, Greco-Roman, Native American, ancient Egyptian, and Norse.Church of All Worlds: Promotes celebration and honoring of all life and the planet as a living, divine organism: Gaea. Combination of worldwide Goddess traditions. Discordianism: Honors the Chaos principle and the humor of chance. Druidism: Many varieties of Druidism are practiced, with varying emphasis on scholarly research into the original Druids, who were the priest/ess and judicial class of the ancient Celts. Egyptian: Ancient Egyptian priestesses and priests were renowned for their level of knowledge and skill in magical arts. In its four-thousand year history, pharaonic Egypt built complex spiritual and magical systems centering around death and rebirth, still influential today. Kabbalah: Jewish mystical and magical system developed since the Middle Ages. The most influential magical system in the development of the Western magical tradition. Magic (sometimes spelled "magick"): Most Pagan religions practice some form of magic, which can be defined as getting results through the application of will. Magic falls into two very general categories; "practical" or "folk" magic pertains to everyday life and is performed with common implements like stones or candles, while "high" or "ceremonial" magic often requires rigorous training, utilizes ancient languages, and concerns the mystical development of the self to its greatest potential. Shamanism: Practiced by Native peoples worldwide. Shamanic techniques such as drumming are used in many different Pagan systems. In traditional societies, shamans travel to the spirit realm to gain information pertaining to the community's needs, such as healing or spiritual growth. Witchcraft: Also known as Wicca or simply the Craft. Honoring of Goddess and God (some traditions honor the Goddess alone), use of magic, and healing, all within the context of "If it harm none, do what you will." Pagan Witchcraft has nothing to do with and is antithetical to Satanism. For more info, check Paganism at Wikipedia | |||||||||||||||||||||
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WiccaWicca, Wicce, the Craft or Neo-Paganism; Wicca means "to bend or alter" from the Old English (Matthews, 339). The derivation of the word "Wicca" has been the subject of much debate among the people who practice it. Some think it was originally a word meaning "wise," some say it derived from words meaning "twisted." These arguments could be followed in articles written for pagan newsletters and magazines, as well as in early computer newsgroups or web sites. It was not commonly used by the members of the groups who practice it until around 1980, when much of the debate began. It could be said that this was one of the ways members of the various groups sought to distinguish themselves from one another within the movement. "The Craft" is a much older way to describe what is commonly known as witchcraft. Practitioners who use this term either do not have a religious facet to their practice, or are pagan in faith and use the term to encompass their magical belief and practice. Members who claim to be descended from relatives who were witches often use this term. The term "Neopagan" is used to distinguish those of magical religious belief from the
Wiccans, but it also includes the Wiccans. Around 1980 in North America, the members of
groups who were initiated into a coven descended in a direct line from Gerald Gardner or
Alex Sanders (founder of Alexandrian witchcraft) began using the term "pagan" to
describe those who were not members of their covens. The word "Neo-pagan" appeared in a
periodical called
Green Egg
[insert date]
. Oberon Zell (formerly known as Tim Zell and Otter Zell), publisher of
Green Egg
claimed to have coined the word "Neo Pagan" in his publication.
Gerald Gardner met Crowley in the 1930's at a social event held in the New Forest of England, according to Robert, a member of Gardner's coven. At this meeting, it is believed by Robert's informant (the curator of the Museum of Witchcraft on the Isle of Mann, who was at the meeting), several prominent members of London society were planning a magical order which would be quite like that proposed by Yeats and Gonne, using the formal magic practiced by the Ceremonial Magicians (like the Golden Dawn) in combination with the folk magic of the common people of Britain. At the time, the Irish and all things Celtic were not yet as favored as they are today, so the English would have wanted a more pure British group. Dorothy Clutterbuck was among those present at that meeting. When discussion turned to who would be chosen to lead the order as High Priestess, it was decided that it should be someone who had good relations with the commoners in her acquaintance and who could convince them to share their powerful, albeit vulgar, secret magic. Clutterbuck was chosen to lead one of many New Forest covens formed that night. Later, in the 1960's, Sybil Leek became famous as a New Forest witch, claiming descent from a long family line of witches.
Wiccan covens based on Gardnerian-type initiations probably have some kind of Book of Shadows , but many general neopagan covens and solitary practitioners do not. Most initiatory covens will have a reading list of books published on topics related to pagan religion and magic. Many books have been published by writers who simply made up the information within. Much of the history and practice of Wicca is based on oral tradition, with many conflicting stories arising as various factions have created a body of sacred belief and practice for themselves.
II. History
More recently, the actual legitimacy of Gardner's claims has been refuted with the
existence of claims that Gardner was never initiated by a Dorothy Clutterbuck and that
the rituals and practices outlined in his book are simply a synthesis of several
sources, including Murray's work, the writings of Aleister Crowley and Freemasonry
(Melton, 165; Adler, 63-64). Critics and experts have since drawn the conclusion that
Gardner probably was involved in a form of Wicca, as in the Old Religion
Although Gardner's claims in Witchcraft Today that Wicca has existed since pre-Christian times have since been refuted, this is not to say that Wicca did not exist during the pre-Christian era. It is simply that the Old Religion of Wicca focused more on herbal medicine and magical lore (Lewis, 178-179). The romantic idea that Wicca survived from the "Old Religion" through the "Burning Times" is an important part of the belief of many modern practitioners. As in any religion, rigid scholarship is not a requirement for membership. This idea is another tenet that provides a point of separation among the groups within the movement, along with yet another small faction that believes witches are survivors or reincarnations of the citizens of Atlantis, though this is more popular in North America. A recent article in Gnosis magazine has created another huge debate in the movement. In it, the writers suggest that Wicca is based on earlier rituals of the Order of Woodcraft and those used later in the Boy Scouts. Among those who have hastened to discredit these theories are the proponents of the North American "I've got lineage" factions. In Britain, it is fairly common knowledge that Gardner cobbled together ideas from many sources to create what has become a viable religious movement. Regardless of its relatively benign practice, as Christianity began to spread across Europe, so did its influence especially when the Kings converted to Christianity. Further into the countryside, the common people tended to practice both the Old Religion and Christianity but as the Church became more and more hierarchical and patriarchical, the drive to cease all Pagan practices substantially increased. With the increasing persecution, the Inquisition and witch-hunts, it is understandble why practitioners of the Old Religion eventually went underground and remained anonymous until the coming of Gerald Gardner (Adler, 45-46). One of Gardner's students, Alexander Sanders later revised Gardnerian rituals and practices into another Wiccan tradition, called Alexandrian for the ancient city of Alexandria. The misconception that Alexandrians are named for a city is a common one. Members of the group began calling themselves Alexandrian after the founder, Alex Sanders, to distinguish themselves from the Gardnerians (a term coined by an Alexandrian in an article written in the 1960's in England, now out of print). The Alexandrian covens differ from the Gardnerians by incorporating more of the ritual used by the ceremonialists and material based on the Kabbalah. They are considered "high church" among the Wiccans. Members of Sander's covens say that he never actually studied with Gardner, but was given an initiation into Gardner's coven and got a copy of the Book of Shadows used by the group, to which he then added material used by his students. It was once common for people who practiced these forms of magical religion to extend courtesy initiations to one another, especially in the U.S. As of 1998, the original Book of Shadows written by Gardner was in the possession of a coven of Alexandrians in Canada, who bought it at auction when the American museum of witchcraft started by Ray Buckland was sold. They have offered it for sale from time to time. A point of controversy in the movement has been over which "traditions" are truly related, whether once iniated into a Gardnerian-based coven one is automatically entitled to material held to be initiatory secrets by another "line" of the movement. In North America, the covens split into factions based on whether their initiates are descended in an unbroken line from Gardner. Some groups copy what they believe to be the original Book of Shadows verbatim and never change a word of the rituals. They report any initiations to a Priestess assigned to keep records, including pictures of the initiate and their initiating Priestess's verification of lineage. In Britain, the book is used for reference and changed by the initiate as they like. There is little emphasis on one's lineage and the groups tend to be inclusive rather than creating a focus on their differences. Even though by all observations, Alexandrian Wicca directly evolved from Gardnerian Wicca, Sanders as the self-proclaimed "King of the Witches," appeared as a guest on several television shows and just like Gardner, worked towards publicizing Wicca, which drew criticisms from the older, more traditional constituents of the Craft (Melton, 772). Eventually these two main Wiccan traditions migrated from Britain to the United Statesduring the 1960s and 1970s (Matthews, 340). As to be expected, several new branches emerged during this time due to the influx of ideas. Some North American covens claim to have been founded earlier than the 1930's or by "war brides" who were early Gardnerian initiates. Eventually in 1972, an Alexandrian High Priestess, Mary Nesnick, created a tradition called Algard Wicca which bases its foundation upon the similarities between Gardnerian and Alexandrian Wicca (Melton, 772). Another form of Wicca, Dianic , also began to emerge in the United States in 1971. Unlike other traditions, Dianic focuses on the worship of Diana, the ancient greek Goddess and consequently, a higher percentage of women and feminist beliefs are found in Dianic covens. The Dianic tradition formed in two separate locations; first in Venice, California by Zsuzsanne Emese Budapest and in Dallas, Texas by Morgan McFarland and Mark Roberts (Melton, 782). The California Dianics are separatist feminist Goddess worshippers, founded by Budapest. The Texas Dianics are polytheists, with no particular emphasis on either Goddess or God, according to initiates. By far, the largest number of modern pagans are not members of Gardnerian type covens -- the term "Dianic" was used by the Gardnerian- based groups to identify the groups not based on Gardnerian or Alexandrian initiations. It has been used as a term of derision toward the goddess worshippers by others, rarely does someone self-identify as Dianic, except in the case of initiates of the Texas Dianics, who use the term to describe themselves, largely because Diana was one of the tutelary deities of the group. More currently, however, a larger proportion of members in Wicca are known as eclectic practitioners . That is, they are not a part of any specific Wiccan craft and often not part of a coven. Instead, these practitioners draw upon several sources to form their own individualized and innovative religious practices (Lewis, 86-87). These eclectics are more commonly called " Neopagan " or " Pagan ". Those not part of a coven are called Solitaries by the Wiccans, but rarely self-identify with that term. Some use the term "Wicca" to self-identify, but the members of the initiatory covens based on Gardnerian and Alexandrian practice have begun a concerted effort to claim that term belongs to their groups alone. The confusion may have arisen from early neopagan writers using the terms interchangeably. Independent believers in a magical pagan religion may have begun using the term Wicca to refer to themselves in the belief that there was virtually no difference among the groups. Some initiates of the Gardnerian-based craft even believe that without an initiation, one cannot be a witch. This is in conflict with the belief of many witches who have practiced magic passed down to them from relatives or friends that they are indeed witches, whether they have a pagan religion or otherwise. In fact, many Gardnerian type Wiccans are independent practitioners, living too far from others of their initiatory group or otherwise unable to find Wiccans of similar enough belief to form a coven. Many modern pagans do not consider themselves to be witches.
III. Beliefs of the GroupWiccan practitioners believe in a balanced polarities, especially that of the feminine and masculine. These two aspects of nature are embodied in two dieties, known as the Goddess Goddess and God . Traditionally most Pagan gods such as Diana, Hecate, Pan and Zeus are considered to represent the different aspects of the Goddess and God. Most traditions worship the two dieties as equals where none deserves more importance than the other. This usually translates into a balance between the feminine and masculine forces in a coven, although men tend to be a minority in the Wiccan religion (Adler, 108; Matthews, 344). However a few branches, such as Dianic, give more (or sole) importance to the feminine aspect (Lewis, 280). There are many neopagans who are monotheists, polytheists or duotheists. Many regard the gods as real, not simply as aspects of a male or female deity. Hence, the gods are worshipped as themselves. Some groups, such as the Church of All Worlds, acknowledge one another as manifestations of deity, addressing each other in ritual as "Thou art God, Thou art Goddess". Not all groups worship all gods. Some may only worship the Norse pantheon or the Greek. Others may only worship specific gods, alone or in combination with gods from the same or different pantheons. In some groups each person has their own deities, while the group may have tutelary deities. According to Wiccan tradition, the Goddess is the immanent existing force and the originof all creation as in the Earth, nature and life itself. Evidence of Goddess worship since the pre-Christian era exists in the form of small statues and carvings of voluptous female figures that have been found throughout Europe (Cabot, 21-22). The Goddess has three faces: the Maiden, the Mother and the Crone (Lewis, 19-20). These faces correspond to the many different cycles in nature: the waxing, full and waning phases of the moon; the menstrual cycle and the cycle of life in birth, life and death. The God aspect is better known as the Horned God from the ancient Celtic god, Cernunnos ("The Horned"). Evidence of a belief in the Horned God dates back to cave paintings from the Paleolithic times in Europe. Other representations of the Horned God later appeared in Egypt, Mesopotamia and India (Murray, 1952, 23-24). The Horned God is worshiped as the masculine side of nature as well as the opener of the gates of life and death. The Horned God represents the fertility that allows the Goddess to create life so in essence, all life originates from Him. He also known as the Hunter so eventually, He is a bringer of death (Adler, 218). According the Wiccan belief, the Horned God represents a masculine force that is wild, strong and expressive without being violent, patriarchical and destructive. Essentially, the Horned God is the perfect opposing force and complement to the Triple Goddess. Some neopagans and Wiccans do worship the gods or aspects of the god which are indeed warlike or patriarchal. Each person is able to create their own set of beliefs about the nature of deity and their relationship. One of the big drawing cards in the early neopagan movement was its lack of dogma. The movement flourished in the 1960's anti- establishment environment. Its ideas may have been introduced by people who follow a structured coven or initiatory path, but it was quickly adapted by countless others who saw an opportunity to find meaning in a confusing religious mileu. Due to its innovative nature, Wicca does not have a written set of rules for its members to follow. However three main beliefs guide practitioners through their actions and beliefs. The first law is known as the Wiccan Rede which states: "An ye harm none, do what ye will." The basic meaning is that members are allowed to follow whatever path they choose so long as no harm befalls others, including themselves. The Wiccan rede also serves as an ethical guideline for magical practices in everyday life and ritual (Matthews, 341). The Wiccan Rede is closely related to the writing of Aleister Crowley who said, "Do what you will is the whole of the law." The rede is probably a later adaptation by Gardner, and is certainly not necessarily a part of all neopagan belief. The second law that Wiccans follow is the Threefold Law , which simply states that a person's deeds return to him/her three times over. The Threefold Law has large implications in governing one's behavior because due to its meaning, the repercussions of both good and evil behavior return to their originator three times over (Matthews, 341). This law is also mostly confined to the Gardnerian-based wiccans. Some magical practitioners do not subscribe to it at all, invoking demons and casting curses with abandon. However, there has been a great deal of writing on the Wiccan and neopagan movement that attempts to sever the early ties with ceremonial magic and its later incarnations such as The Church of Satan and the Temple of Set or the like. The Satanists don't want to be lumped with the Wiccans any more than the Wiccans want to be lumped with them. To a Satanist, the Wiccans are weak and ineffectual. Many neopagans worship Egyptian gods, including Set, but tend to distinguish themselves from practitioners from The Temple of Set, withing to be seen in a more positive light. Satanists and the Temple of Set , conversely, relish the limelight associated with their negative image. The final belief is that of Reincarnation . Wiccans do not believe in heaven or hell since death is considered to be another form of existence. Some Wiccans believe that a soul is continually reborn whereas others believe that once a soul learns all the life lessons, it is granted eternal rest in a place called the Summerlands. Reincarnation is the ultimate method for curbing the misuse of magic and evil behavior since it deals out a type of cosmic justice in that person is reborn in a position that befits their deeds from the previous life (Matthews, 341). Some do not believe in reincarnation at all. Nor does belief in a deity from a historically Greek pantheon, for example, necessarily require one to worship in the historical Greek manner. Part of the modern pagan religion is a mix and match set of beliefs and practices refined to suit the sensibilities of the modern world. Human sacrifice is out. Dancing naked under the moonlight is in, in some groups. Although Wiccan practices vary greatly from tradition to tradition and coven to coven, most practitioners follow a basic system of ritual and celebration. Covens range in number of members, but traditionally have a maximum of thirteen (Adler, 108). When the number of members in a coven exceeds thirteen, the common belief is that the coven should split, to continue the self-perpetuation process. Wiccans do not have any holy buildings for their rituals. Due to their beliefs, any place in contact with the Earth will suffice. Instead Wiccans worship what is known as the Circle. The area is purified by the four elements and then the Circle is cast, usually by someone walking clockwise along its perimeter and drawing an actual circle, sometimes with a wand or athame which are two common Wiccan tools. After this, the four cardinal directions are greeted and invoked, according to the tradition and preference of the practitioners (Cabot, 114). Other neopagans practice entirely without formal circle-casting. Some Celtic reconstructionists worship in a Nemeton, as they believe the ancients did, within a ritual framework based on three realms - earth, wind, water. Others have adapted Native American paradigms and invoke the directions, including Above and Below. Wiccans conduct their magical and sacred rites within the Circle, invoking the names of the Goddess and God and the powers of nature. Once the Circle has been cast, the space within represents an altered consciousness that is "between worlds." The Circle also serves to contain energy that is built up during the magical rites until it is ready to be released in what is known as the Cone of Power. When the Cone of Power is released, the energy goes into the purposes that the Wiccan practitioners desired for it during their rites (Adler, 108-109). Also common during Wiccan rituals, a cup of wine is raised and an Athame is dipped into it. The cup is then passed around the Circle to be drunk by the practitioners with the words, "Blessed Be." Cakes are then passed around as well, to complete the socialising and fellowship that is present in covens (Adler, 168). Sometimes rituals are also conducted skyclad (naked) or in special costumes, depending on the Wiccan tradition (Lewis, 79). The purpose of either is to increase the unity with nature and magical potential. At the end of the rites, the Circle is opened, usually the counterclockwise direction (Cabot, 116). Wiccans have a set of tools commonly used for casting circles and during rituals. Thebroom, a stereotypical Wiccan symbol, actually serves the purpose of purifying a space before casting a circle. An altar is also commonly set up in the center of the circle where the members cast magic. The main tools utilized by members are the wand , cup , pentacle and athame , which is a type of black-handled dagger. These objects represent fire, water, earth and air, respectively. In some traditions, the wand is symbol for air and the athame a symbol for fire. With the altar and practitioner, if solitary, or High Priestess, in a coven, located in the center of the circle, the fifth element of spirit is present during the spellcasting (Matthews, 341-342). This totality of the elements and nature perfectly complement the image of the Goddess and God during the ritual. Some Wiccans have alternate associations with elements and directions, especially those based on Norse or Welsh covens formed in North America since 1960.The Athame in some groups is a white-handled knife used in ritual, the black handled athame might be used outside the circle for magically related work such as gathering herbs or cutting candle wicks. Another tool used for these purposes is the boline, a cresecent shaped knife. The most well-known ritual is that of "Drawing Down the Moon," in which the spirit of the Goddess and God are drawn down into the High Priestess and High Priest, respectively (Adler, 109-110). The ritual usually occurs during a full moon and consists of an invokation and the High Priestess holding up the cup, full of water, while the High Priest raises the athame. After "Drawing Down the Moon," the High Priestess and High Priest are the dieties incarnate. In the succeeding time, they convey knowledge and information to the other members of the coven. Sometimes they answer questions about personal issues and give insight and understanding about the spiritual realms (Cabot, 115-116). Neopagans gather together formally or informally in public settings for discussion groups, parties, booksignings, baby-blessings, handfastings (the pagan form of marriage) and many other occasions. Drawing down the moon was a Gardnerian-type innovation in modern times, but since Adler's book and others have been published, it has been adopted by people who are not initiates of the formal groups. In fact, everything that has been published has been used by anyone who had access to the material, including non- initiates. Initiates comprise only a fraction of the movement. There are three types of Wiccan gatherings: Sabbats, Esbats and special purpose. In a special purpose gathering, a coven meets to deal with a common goal or issue that needs immediate attention, such as casting a health spell to aid a sickly friend. Most magical rites are performed at Esbats, which are small gatherings that correspond to the phases of the moon. Covens usually celebrate the Esbats alone, a practice which helps to reaffirm the bonds within a coven (Adler, 110). Larger and more tribal festivals also take place during the year. These holidays, known as Sabbats , celebrate four major agricultural and pastoral festivals ( Samhain , Imbolc , Beltaine and Lammas ) and four minor solar festivals of the solstices ( Winter and Summer )and equinoxes ( Vernal and Autumnal ). During these gatherings, several covens often meet together to share and enjoy the festivities (Adler, 110-111). Some neopagans celebrate the historic religious festivals of their deities, Dionysia, for example. Some have attempted to recreate rites based on their understanding of how the ancients might have worshipped, based on surviving materials such as the Eleusinian Mysteries. Others have created their rites entirely based on their own preferences. It is important to note that among the neopagans, some distinguish themselves as Religious Pagans, as opposed to what they would call Cultural Pagans. In the 40 or so years of the movement in North America, a vast system of festivals and meetings has arisen, giving opportunity for anyone who joins in to identify and consider themselves part of the movement. Some pagans do not actually have a religious aspect to their practice, but wish to participate in the celebrations and adopt the magical personae associated with witchcraft or neopaganism. While the Wiccan initiates consider themselves to be priesthood, the non-initiate has no intention of being their laity. They are simply unrelated, while sharing many common beliefs and practices. So, the covens comprised of Gardnerian-type initiates are priests and priestesses (or those who are in training to become initiated) who celebrate among themselves. Occasionally, a neopagan acts in a role similar to other clergy, performing blessings, weddings, etc., but it is not always an initiate of a formal group who acts in this capacity. Many are self-proclaimed clergy. In Canada and parts of the US, groups are actively seeking credentialled status for their members to be recognized as clergy by the local and federal governments. In some areas, Wiccans or Neopagans are active in Interfaith groups with every other religion.
IV. Issues and Controversies: Past and PresentNote: The commentary which follows is fairly commonly held belief among neopagans and Wiccans. However, it should be stated that growing numbers of people in the movement do not wish to be associated with beliefs which they view as serving to marginalize their religion. Some modern pagans reject the role of victim and oppressed person. Wicca, in all its incarnations, is probably one of the longest and most persecuted religions in history. With the coming of Christianity in Europe, the Old Religion was almost immediately opposed. Although the rulers easily converted, the common folk were less accessible (Lewis, 44). Eventually during the 15th century, what became known as "The Burning Times" came to pass. As the Church spread lies about the Wiccan tradition and accused female practitioners of being handmaidens of Satan, Wiccans were increasingly persecuted as the hysteria increased. With the aid of witch-hunting manuals such as the Malleus Maleficarum , thousands of accused witches across Europe, a large portion of which were not even practitioners of the Old Religion, were hunted down and killed well into the 18th century in Europe. Even today, the actual number of people who died during that time is unknown (Ruether, 101-103). While the "Burning Times" were moving towards their end in Europe, in 17th century Salem, another witch-hunt was beginning. As with the European witch-hysteria, Salem fostered an environment ready for such a hysteria, strained as its inhabitants were between economics, lifestyles and politics as a result of their new surroundings and Puritan values and beliefs. With the addition of an interest in the occult and some knowledge in voodoo lore from a slave, the stage was set for another general panic and witch-hunt to begin (Boyer and Nissenbaum, 1974, 181). In 1692, a group of closely-knit girls ranging in age from nine to nineteen started to meet together to discuss the future. Because of a slight fascination with magic, one of the girls eventually created a crude crystal ball and from there, the path to the Witch Trials began (Boyer and Nissenbaum, 1974, 1-2). As time went on, the girls' parents began to show concern about their children's "odd" behavior and most likely were the original instigators of the belief in the presence of witchcraft. Only under persistent questioning did the girls finally begin to accuse other people in Salem of the practice of witchcraft (Boyer and Nissenbaum, 1974, 24). At this time, members of the clergy were struggling to reassert authority and create religious fervor. The accusations served as an opportunity to do exactly that (Boyer and Nissenbaum, 1974, 60-65). With the aid of Cotton Mather's The Wonders of the Invisible World , the witch-craze was justified and even further driven into a panic. Before the Witch trials ended, several people had been hanged and many more had been tortured or spent months in prison (Hill, 1). Today, Old Salem has been into a Maritime National Site for its esteemed status as a major center for the Eastern luxuries trade and its legacy of ships leaving its ports to open new trading markets overseas. Shortly after the Witch trials ended, New England trade increased and much later after the Revolutionary War, the sea port substiantially flourished. Even though most of the museums and historic landmarks are devoted to Old Salem's maritime heritage, the Visitor Center and a private museum present interesting ways to learn about the Salem Witch trials. Almost unbelievably the witch-hunts have persisted to the present day. As recent as 1986-1996 in South Africa ,thousands of people have been accused of witchcraft, although the term does not apply to a religion and practice similar to that of Wicca. The victims have been accused of powers that are remarkably similar to the accused powers of witches in Medieval Europe. Despite all beliefs to the contrary and regardless of an actual involvement in Wicca or the occult, witch-hunts have continued to occur across time and culture. One of the more common and present day controversies of Wicca, one that has its links to the European witch-hunt, is that of its supposed link to Satanism (Matthews, 342-343). One of the unlying reasons for this is the marked similarity between the visual representations of the Horned God and Satan. More than one theorist has suggested that one of the ways the Church aided in the persecution of Wicca and its predecessors was taking the Horned God and making Him into the Christian incarnation of evil (Murray, 1952, 32). Such a legacy probably helps to further the present-day prejudice against Wiccans. There have been allegations of members losing custody of their children and facing discrimination because of their religious beliefs (Matthews, 343). Despite all the misinformation concerning Wicca in popular culture, it should be obvious that none of it applies to true adherents of the Wiccan craft. Ideas such as human sacrifice and child molestation are in direct opposition to the Wiccan Rede. Unfortunately this ignorance and misinformation is a direct result of the tendency for Wiccan practitioners to remain anonymous and unnamed (Lewis 302). Even with such public awareness groups as the Witches' League for Public Awareness and The Witches' Web , the stigma that has been associated with the word "witch" is likely to remain for a long time. Another issue connected to Wicca is that of the feminist movement. Traditional Wiccan adherents and feminist proponents have had an uneasy relationship since Wicca was first introduced in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. For the traditional Wiccan, the Goddess was a symbol of nature but for the feminist, the Goddess was the symbol of the empowerment of women (Neitz, 353). Feminist practitioners such as Zsuzsanne Bedapest and her branch of Dianic Wicca have emphasized the feminine aspect much more than traditional Wicca, to the extent that men are excluded from their covens (Neitz, 367). This does not sit well with traditional Wiccans who stress the balance of masculinity and femininity. Such obvious disregard for one polarity, in Wiccan belief, would throw the magical forces askew (Adler, 217). Perhaps another attractive aspect of Wicca is the opportunity for feminists to identify with the persecuted of Europe's Witch-hunt who were victims of the strongly patriarchical structure of Christianity (Neitz, 359). Since its connection to Wicca, the feminist movement has then focused its purpose on stripping away all the dark connotations of the word "witch" and restore to it instead the old attachments of healing and female power (Neitz, 358).
V. Links to Wicca Web Sites
Witches' League for Public Awareness
Homepage
The Witches Voice
The Witches' Web Homepage
Witchcraft and
Wicca
Enchante:The Journal of the Urbane
Pagan
Ancient Latvian Patheism
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DruidismDruidry is not truly a religion. It's a philosophy and you can worship a God or a Goddess, it's up to you. You can be a Christian or a Moslem or anything else and still be a Druid. "But while a Christian will say God made that tree, a Druid will say the energy of a creative force is in that tree." Kieron, a North-East UK Druid. History:Modern Druidism is one of the Neopagan family of religions, which includes Wicca and recreations of Egyptian, Greek, Norse, Roman and other ancient Pagan religions. Some present-day Druids attempt to reconstruct of the beliefs and practices of ancient Druidism. Others modern-day followers of Druidism work directly with the spirits of place, of the gods and of their ancestors to create a new Druidism. Within ancient Druidism, there were three specialties. "A general categorisation of the three different grades accords the arts to the bards, the skills of prophecy and divination to the Ovates and philosophical, teaching, counselling and judicial tasks to the Druid." 1
Since ancient Druidism was an oral tradition, they did not have a set of scriptures as do Christianity and other "religions of the book. 2 "Some Druidic "teachings survived in the Bardic colleges in Wales, Ireland and Scotland which remained active until the 17th century, in medieval manuscripts, and in oral tradition, folk lore and ritual." 3 Druidism and other Neopagan religions are currently experiencing a rapid growth. Many people are attempting to rediscover their roots, their ancestral heritage. For many people in North America, their ancestors can be traced back to Celtic/Druidic countries. Most modern Druids connect the origin of their religion to the ancient Celtic people. However, historical data is scarce. The Druids may well have been active in Britain and perhaps in northern Europe before the advent of the Celts. Many academics believe that the ancestors of the Celts were the Proto-Indo European culture who lived near the Black Sea circa 4000 BCE. Some migrated in a South-Westerly direction to create the cultures of Thrace and Greece; others moved North-West to form the Baltic, Celtic, Germanic and Slavic cultures. Evidence of a Proto-Celtic Unetice or Urnfield culture has been found in what is now Slovakia circa 1000 BCE. This evolved into a group of loosely linked tribes which formed the Celtic culture circa 800 BCE. By 450 BCE they had expanded into Spain; by 400 BCE they were in Northern Italy, and by 270 BCE, they had migrated into Galatia (central Turkey). By 200 BCE, they had occupied the British Isles, Brittany, much of modern France, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland, North West Spain, and their isolated Galatia settlement in Turkey. Although the Celts had a written language, it was rarely used. Their religious and philosophical beliefs were preserved in an oral tradition. Little of their early history remains. Most of our information comes from Greek and Roman writers, who may well have been heavily biased (the Celts invaded Rome in 390 BCE and Greece in 279 BCE). Other data comes from the codification (and modification) of Celtic myth cycles by Christian monks. The latter included the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle, the Cycle of Kings, the Invasion Races Cycle from Ireland, and The Mabinogion from Wales. Unfortunately, much Celtic history and religion has been lost or distorted by an overlay of Christianity. The Christian Church adsorbed much of Celtic religion: many Pagan Gods and Goddesses became Christian saints; sacred springs and wells were preserved and associated with saints; many Pagan temple sites became the location of cathedrals. By the 7th Century CE, Druidism itself was destroyed or continued deeply underground throughout most of the formerly Celtic lands. There is some evidence that Pagan religions did survive in isolated areas of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania into the 20th Century. Myths about Druids
Beliefs and Practices:Beliefs and practices of the ancient Celts are being pieced together by modern Druids. Because so much information has been lost, this is not an easy task. Some findings are:
Seasonal Days of Celebration:Druids, past and present, celebrate a series of fire-festivals, on the first of each of four months. Each would start at sunset and last for three days. Great bonfires would be built on the hilltops. Cattle would be driven between two bonfires to assure their fertility; couples would jump over a bonfire or run between two bonfires as well. The festivals are:
There were occasional references in ancient literature to:
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Shamanism
What is a Shaman?Shaman is a word borrowed from the Siberian Tungus tribe, one of the first shamanic cultures to be studied. The office of Shaman is a unique one, and is present in the history of every hunter/gatherer culture around the world. In tribal culture, the Shaman is the link between the people and the worlds of the spirit, employing ecstatic trance states to travel to other dimensions. The Shaman is the priest, healer, magician, diviner, and the mediator between the living and the ancestors.History Shamanistic practices are thought to predate all organized religions, and certainly date back to the neolithic period. Aspects of shamanism are encountered in later, organized religions, generally in their mystic and symbolic practices. Greek paganism was influenced by shamanism, as reflected in the stories of Tantalus, Prometheus, Medea, Calypso among others, as well as in the Eleusinian Mysteries, and other mysteries. Some of the shamanic practices of the Greek religion were later adopted into the Roman religion. There is a strong shamanistic influence in the Bön religion of central Asia, and in Tibetan Buddhism. Buddhism became popular with shamanic peoples such as the Tibetans, Mongols and Manchu beginning with the eighth century. Forms of shamanistic ritual combined with Tibetan Buddhism became institutionalized as the state religion under the Chinese Yuan dynasty and Qing dynasty. One common element of shamanism and Buddhism is the attainment of spiritual realization, at times mediated by entheogenic (psychedelic) substances. The shamanic practices of many cultures were virtually wiped out with the spread of Christianity. In Europe, starting around 400 CE, the Christian church was instrumental in the collapse of the Greek and Roman religions. Temples were systematically destroyed and key ceremonies were outlawed. Beginning with the middle ages and continuing into the Renaissance, remnants of European shamanism were wiped out by campaigns against witches. These campaigns were often orchestrated by the Catholic Inquisition. The repression of shamanism continued as Christian influence spread with Spanish colonization. In the Caribbean, and Central and South America, Catholic priests followed in the footsteps of the Conquistadors and were instrumental in the destruction of the local traditions, denouncing practitioners as "devil worshippers" and having them executed. In North America, the English Puritans conducted periodic campaigns against individuals perceived as witches. More recently, attacks on shamanic practitioners have been carried out at the hands of Christian missionaries to third world countries. As recently as the nineteen seventies, historic petroglyphs were being defaced by missionaries in the Amazon. It has been postulated that modern state campaigns against the use of psychedelic substances are the offshoot of previous religious campaigns against shamanism.Today, shamanism, once universal, survives primarily among indigenous peoples. Shamanic practice continues today in the tundras, jungles, deserts, and other rural areas, and also in cities, towns, suburbs and shantytowns all over the world. This is especially widespread in Africa as well as South America, where "mestizo shamanism" is widespread. Many recent efforts have been made trying to link shamanic practice and knowledge with Western, scientific beliefs. Anthropologist Jeremy Narby has proposed that shamans take their consciousness down to the molecular level, working with DNA and viruses that they see as the twin serpents or malicious "darts". The holomovement theory proposed by David Bohm is often seen as an approach to create a scientific foundation for concepts such as parallel worlds and alternative ways to traverse time and space. Aspects of the Practice Different forms of shamanism are found around the world, and practitioners are also known as medicine men or women, as well as witch doctors. Initiation and Learning In Shamanic cultures, the shaman plays a priest like role; however, there is an essential difference between the two, as Joseph Campbell describes:
A shaman may be initiated via a serious illness, by being struck by lightning, or by a near-death experience (e.g. the shaman Black Elk), and there usually is a set of cultural imagery expected to be experienced during shamanic initiation regardless of method. According to Mircea Eliade, such imagery often includes being transported to the spirit world and interacting with beings inhabiting it, meeting a spiritual guide, being devoured by some being and emerging transformed, and/or being "dismantled" and "reassembled" again, often with implanted amulets such as magical crystals. The imagery of initiation generally speaks of transformation and granting powers, and often entails themes of death and rebirth. In some societies shamanic powers are considered to be inherited whereas in others shamans are considered to have been "called" - Among the Siberian Chukchis one may behave in ways that Western clinicians would characterize as psychotic, but which Siberian culture interprets as possession by a spirit who demands that one assume the shamanic vocation. Among the South American Tapirape shamans are called in their dreams. In other societies shamans choose their career: First Nations would seek communion with spirits through a "vision quest"; South American Shuar, seeking the power to defend their family against enemies, apprentice themselves to accomplished shamans. Practice and Method The shaman plays the role of healer in shamanic societies; shamans gain knowledge and power by traversing the axis mundi and bringing back knowledge from the heavens. Even in western society, this ancient practice of healing is referenced by the use of the caduceus as the symbol of medicine. Oftentimes the shaman has, or acquires, one or more familiar helping entities in the spirit world; these are often spirits in animal form, spirits of healing plants, or (sometimes) those of departed shamans. In many shamanic societies, magic, magical force, and knowledge are all denoted by one word, such as the Quechua term yachay. While the causes of disease are considered to lie in the realm of the spiritual, being effected by malicious spirits or Witchcraft, spiritual methods as well as what we would consider physical methods are used to heal. The shaman often will enter the body of their patient to find the spirit making the patient sick, and heal by removing the infectious spirit by the patient. However, many shamans have expert knowledge of the plant life in their area, and an herbal regimine is often perscribed as treatment. In many places, the shamans claim to learn from the plants directly, only being able to determine the effects of a plant and use it to heal after meeting the spirit of the plant and getting permission. In South America, individual spirits are called through singing icaros; to call the spirit, the spirit must teach you their song. The use of totem items such as rocks is common; these items are believed to have special powers and an animating spirit. Such practices are presumably very ancient; in circa 368 bc, Plato wrote in the Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that everyone who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it was telling the truth". The belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujeria in South America, is prevalent in many shamanic societies. Some societies distinguish shamans who cure from sorcerers who harm; others believe that all shamans have the power to both cure and kill; that is, shamans are in some societies also thought of as being capable of harm. The shaman usually enjoys great power and prestige in the community, renowned for their powers and knowledge; but they may also be suspected of harming others and thus feared. In engaging in this work the shaman exposes himself to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from any enemy shamans, as well as from the means employed to alter his state of consciousness. Certain of the plant materials used can kill, and the out-of-body journey itself can lead to non-returning and physical death; spells of protection are common, and the use of more dangerous plants is usually very highly ritualized. Trance - The state of ecstatic trance is central to shamanic practice, and is achieved through various methods (and combinations of methods), including self-hypnosis, hallucinogens, and repetitive drumming. Many of the major themes of religions- ascension to heaven, descent into the underworld, etc., are believed by anthropologists to have originated in shamanic practices. Entheogens - The use of hallucinogenic (or, entheogenic) substances is central to most Shamanic traditions. In the Amazon, the most notable of these is Ayahuasca, a complex brew with renowned healing properties. In the Americas, tobacco was popular, and in Siberia, marijuana. The use of these substances is so central to Shamanic practices that some researchers, such as the late Terrence McKenna, believe that they are inextricably linked with the origins of human spirituality. Additionally, there are traces of entheogenic plant use in almost all historical religions, a curious fact that is largely ignored by most modern religions. Shamanic Technology Generally, the shaman traverses the axis mundi and enters the spirit world by effecting a change of consciousness in himself, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through the use of entheogens. The methods used are diverse, and often are used in conjunction with each other. Some of the methods for effecting such altered states of consciousness are:
Power Plants
Gender and Sexuality Most shamans are men, but there are societies in which women may be shamans. In Old Norse Religion, shamanism was seen as un-manly and practiced mainly by women. However, in Old Norse mythology, the supreme god Odin was also seen as the foremost shaman. In some societies shamans exhibit a two-spirit identity, assuming the dress and attributes of the opposite sex from a young age, this may include a man taking on the role of a wife in an otherwise ordinary marriage; this practice is common, and found among the Chukchee, Sea Dyak, Patagonians, Aruacanians, Arapaho, Cheyenne, Navaho, Pawnee, Lakota, and Ute, as well as many other Native American tribes. Such two-spirit shamans are thought to be especially powerful. They are highly respected and sought out in their tribes, as they will bring high status to their mates. Shamanism and New Age The New Age movement imported some ideas from shamanism as well as Eastern religions. As in other such imports, the original users of these ideas frequently condemn New Age use as misunderstood and superficial. At the same time, there is an endeavor in occult and esoteric circles to re-invent shamanism in a modern form drawing from core shamanism, a set of beliefs and practices synthesized by Michael Harner and often revolving around the use of ritual drumming and dance; various indigenous forms of shamanism, often focusing on the ritual use of entheogens, as well as chaos magic. Much of this is focused upon in Europe, where ancient shamanic traditions was suppressed by the Christian church and where people compelled to be shamans often find it improper to use shamanic systems rooted in other parts of the earth. Various traditional shamans express respect for this endeavor and in this, separate it sharply from "light" New Age shamanism. Becoming a Shaman One becomes a Shaman generally by heredity or selection, and through rigorous and sometimes difficult (even dangerous) training and initiation. Sometimes people from Western cultures claim to be shamans. Beware of dubious claims of anyone offering high priced 'workshops' in idealized Native Shamanism- most shamanic traditions are practiced in secrecy and are not available to outsiders or curiosity seekers. It is highly unlikely that a true initiate will go on the workshop circuit, and many indigenous medicine men, view these new age, western "shamans" as hucksters out for money or affirmation of self. Tribal leaders consider these events to be exploitative and offensive. Many shamanistic cultures feel there is a danger that their voices will be drowned out by self-styled "shamans"; citing, for example, the fact that Lynn Andrews has sold more books than all Native American authors put together. Shamanism Wikipedia
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Kabbalah(Cabala)The Kabbalah (also Cabala, Kabala, Qabalah) is system of thought which was originally included in Jewish theosophy, philosophy, science, magic and mysticism. 'Kabbalah' is Hebrew for "that which is received" and refers to a secret oral tradition of teaching which extends from teacher to pupil. Kabbalah, which is the spelling usually preferred by scholars, specifically refers to oral mystical teaching not normally revealed to the general population, but passed on from the adepts to the initiates. The term "Kabbalah" itself was first applied to secret mystical teachings in the eleventh century by Iba Gabriol, a Spanish philosopher, and has since become applied to all Jewish mystical practice. Although the Kabbalah is founded on the Torah, the Jewish scriptures and other sacred writings, it is no intellectual discipline; and the mystic is not to practice it in solitude, but is to employ it to enlighten humanity. The Kabbalist seeks two things: an union with God while maintaining a social, family, and communal life within the framework of traditional Judaism. Those who have adopted the Kabbalistic teachings have modified these latter aims. In legend God taught the Kabbalah to some angels, who in turn after the Fall taught it to Adam. The Kabbalah was to help humankind to return to God. It then passed to Noah, to Abraham and Moses. Moses included the first four books of the Pentateuch, leaving out Deuteronomy, in the Kabbalah before he initiated seventy Elders into it. The Elders initiated others into it. It is thought that David and Solomon were Kabbalistic adapts. Eventually the oral tradition ended and the knowledge was written down. Many of the basic ideas and principles found in the Kabbalah are also found in Gnosticism because both were in the Eastern Mediterranean near the time of Christ. Both attach an importance to knowledge, called the 'gnosis' or the knowledge of God. This knowledge does not come from rational thinking but is inspired by God. As in Gnosticism, sin is not considered to be wrong doing but ignorance which separates humankind from God. The knowledge, specifically the 'gnosis', unites humankind to God--to know God is to be God. Those sharing this 'gnosis' are the elect; they are the enlightened ones who share the knowledge of God, although they may not lead perfect lives. The Kabbalists share similar goals as did the Gnostics: each group set out to answer the religious paradoxical questions of life. Such as why does the world possess both good and evil characteristics when it was created by a God Who is all good? Why is the world finite when it was created by an infinite God? Similar questions which are asked concerning the world can also be asked of humankind. Of all of the questions concerning God's relationship with the world and humankind, there seems to be one ultimate question: God, by his very nature of being infinite, all good and knowing, seems unknowable; then, how is it possible for humankind to know him? The Kabbalah seems to serve to answer this question in two ways: the first is in the explanation that every idea contains its own contradiction, and God Who is the sum of all ideas contains all contradictions. Therefore God is both good and evil, just and unjust, merciful and cruel, limitless and limited, unknowable and knowable. All things, which contain their contradictions or opposites, unite to form a greater whole which is God. From this first answer comes the Kabbalah's second answer which indirectly relates God to the world. God is seen as a mirror from which shines a brilliant light. This brilliant light is then reflected onto a second mirror, then onto a third, then to a fourth, and so on. With each succeeding reflection the light loses some of its brilliancy until when it finally reaches the finite world it shines very dimly. Within this concept of the reflection of light lies the Kabbalist's theory for the creation of the world. In the begin- ning there was just God, and from himself he sent an emanation, often described as light. From this first emanation evolved nine more, ten in all, called the "sephiroth." The ancient Kabbalists taught that the brilliant lights of the sephiroth constitute the sacred name of God. Their reasoning was that the sephiroth was the world, or universe, and God is the world. Therefore, the sephiroth are the facets or parts of God, and they also are facets of the universe. The origin of the Kabbalah centers around a short book titled "Sefer Yetzirah" (Book of Creation). The origin dating of the book is unknown but it is known to have been used in the tenth century, but may have been composed as early as the third century. The book tells that God created the world by the means of thirty-two secret paths of knowledge which are the ten "sephirots" and the twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet. It is believed the ten sephirots were originally thought as referring to numbers but later representing emanations from which the cosmos was formed. Each of the ten emanations within the sephiroth is called a "sephirot," and together they form what is called the Tree of Life. This Tree is the central image of Kabbalistic meditation; for again, each sephirot describes a certain aspect of God, and taken together as the sephiroth they form the sacred name of God. The Tree also describes the path by which the divine spirit descended into the material world, and the path by which humankind must take to ascend to God. Another basic teaching shared by Gnosticism and the Kabbalah was that the divine spirit, or the soul, had descended from God and became trapped in the human body or matter. This was a prevalent theory shortly after time of Christ within the Mediterranean area. This and other religious teachings exemplify how such teachings can reflect the beliefs of the peoples of the time. The first nine sephirots form three triangles with the sephiroth with the tenth sephirot forming the foundation or base. When meditating upon the sephiroth the Kabbalist can concentrate upon any one of the three images which the triangles are said to represent. The images are analogous to God's relationship to humakind and the world. The first triangle represents in impregnation of the female by the male thus creating the world and child, the second triangle represents the development of the world and child, and the third triangle is the adult person or the finished product of the world. The triangles also depict the human body: the first triangle is the head, the second is the trunk and arms, the third being the legs and reproductive organs which is based on the analogy of the relation between man and God. An illustration of the sephiroth or Tree of Life is as follows:
With the help of the sephiroth humankind ascends to God by gaining the meaning of each sephirot one at a time. The accomplishment of ascending from one sephirot to the next is an attainment of knowledge. Making one's way through the sephiroth is exceedingly difficult. Because each sephirot is said to be divided into four sections that run the Four Worlds that compose the cosmos. They are Aziluth, the world of archetypes, from which come all manifestation of forms; Briah, the world of creation, here the archetypal ideas become patterns; Yetzirah, the world of form, here the patterns are expressed; and Assirah, the material world. Also within the sephirot is the sacred, unknowable and unspeakable name of God: YHVH (Yahweh), or the Tetragrammaron. The Tetragrammaron is so sacred that other names pertaining to God such as Elohim, Adonai and Jehovah are substituted in scripture for it. The letters YHVH correspond to the Four Worlds. The second description of the sephiroth pictures the world or universe made up of layers, or outer skins such as surrounding an onion. This was generally how the world was viewed from ancient times to the sixteenth century. God was thought to reside in the outer layer, and things closely related to God were within the next outer layers. The most inner layer of this configuration contained the material world. The spiritual soul of humankind descended from the outer layer, or God, to the inner layer, or the material world. This onion-skin configuration of the world is definitely shared with Gnosticism whose chief teaching was that the divine spirit was entrapped in matter, especially the soul in humankind. It is only through the attainment of knowledge that the spirit can escape its material confinement. The Kabbalah, which is based on the theory of the soul's descent from and ascent to God, is made up of ten sephirots instead of nine which is due to the influence of the Pythagorean theory. Earth has a separate sphere to itself. Above this the next seven sephirots correspond to the planets, with the top two corres- ponding to the stars and the Prime Mover or God. Each sephirot is guarded by angels who determinedly try to turn climbers back on their ascent to God. On the bottom sephirots there are plenty sinister intelligences who can easily trapped a soul in ignorance. The Kabbalist hold that some persons can achieve an union with God even before death. There were many modifications and interpretations made of the Kabbalah through the centuries. In the tenth century the practical Kabbalah was introduced in Italy and then spread to Germany. In it was contained ecstatic practices, magic rituals and mainly techniques of prayer, contemplation and meditation. From it came such techniques as gematria, notarikon and temurah. The thirteenth century saw the birth of the classical Kabbalah in Provence, France. It moved into Spain where it was developed more extensively by the Spanish Hebrews. The primary work was the "Sefer ba-Zohar (Book of Splendor). The development progressed until the Jews seemed to lose their spirituality. Then after a year in a cave meditating upon this situation a rabbi heard a voice which told him to teach those ready to learn, and let the ordinary people go on their way. From this revelation seemed to have developed the "Zohar," the teachings recorded by disciples. Chiefly, the Zohar describes God as "Em-Sof" ("without end"). God is unknowable beyond representation. He created the world out of himself. The chief aim of humankind is to achieve complete union with the Divine. All things are reflected in a higher world, and nothing is independent of everything else. "Thus human beings, by elevating their souls to unite with God, also elevate all other entities in the cosmos." The nine sephirots configured the three triangles in the sephiroth with the tenth forming the base. The triangles may be aligned vertically or horizontally. Each has the male (a positive) and female (a negative) principle with a milder principle between them to create a balance between the two. The male principle is always on the right side or at the top of each triangle while the female principle is always on the left side or at the bottom of the triangle. For instance, the first triangle embodies Kether, Chokmah and Binah. The three principles with each sephirot are aligned from right to left because Hebrew is written from right to left. Each principle functionally participates according to its characteristics or nature. In general the male principles, sometimes called forces, are characterized as being positive, active, dynamic or thrusting. The female principles are said to be a combination of good traits which are joined with evil or ominous ones which makes the female principle complex. The feminine principle can be both passive and active at times, it can be both passionate and cold, also tender and cruel. The principle residing between each male and female principle is thought to be bisexual, which serves to harmonize the opposites. For example in the first triangle Chokmah, the male principle, is opposed by Binah, the female principle. These principles are thought of as the Father and Mother respectively. Chokmah, also called the active Wisdom of God, acts upon Binah, the passive Understanding of God. Kether is the harmonizing principle which keeps a balance between the two. But, modern Kabbalists say that it is the thrusting and compliance between these opposing principles which brings about creation. In the second triangle where the father, mother and child are represented the sephirots are Chesed, Geburah and Tiphareth. Chesed (male) is the kind and merciful father who guides and protects the child. Geburah (female) is the strict, authoritarian mother who tears down what Chesed builds up. The balancing principle in this triangle is Tiphareth. Tiphareth, in the sphere of the sun, is often compared to the sun. The functions of Tiphareth, that combines the characteristics of both Chesed and Geburah, are frequently compared to those of Nature. Tiphareth can be both the warming sun that gently shines on humankind, beasts and crops; and it can also be the fierce heat which suffocates humankind and kills animals and crops. Christian Kabbalists compare Christ to Tiphareth for Tiphareth is thought of as the son of Kether (God) as being directly descended from it on the Tree. Tiphareth is the life-force which brings forth physical life as Christ is said to give the promise of eternal life. There has been a symbolic association between Christ and the sun since the earliest days of Christianity. The third triangle represents the child's emergence into adulthood. Its sephirots symbolize the struggle between the forces of animality and mentality. Netzach (male) is said to represent the Endurance and the Victory of God. These traits are thought to stand for the all-enduring drives of Nature which allow humankind to act naturally instead of by contrivance. The opposing sephirot is Hod (female) which contains the good qualities of imagination, inspiration, insight and intutition which the Kabbalists admire; but Hod also had the powers of reason and logic which are distrusted by the Kabbalist. Reasoning is thought to repress humankind's natural abilities. Yesod is the child fully grown, and the harmonizing sephirot between Netzach and Hod. Sexually mature Yesod is able to produce both sexually and mentally. Also, it is in the sphere of the moon. So within the struggle between Netzach and Hod Yesod bring about the best results. The results may not be produced by the best assets within a person, because as the moon is the ruler of the night and the light of the darkness, Yesod is the dark depths of personality which often lie hidden but suffice. Yesod is the potential magic power within oneself bringing together the magician's highest mental abilities and the animal or sexual drive to succeed at what he wishes to accomplish. Yesod is thought to be the link between Tiphareth (the sun or the life-force) and Malkuth (the earth or the body). Malkuth being the base of the sephiroth or Tree is the Earth. This is appropriate because within Earth are found all things of God. It is therefore the kingdom of God because every principle found with each of the sephirots is found within Earth. All ideas and their contradictions are found on Earth. It might be noted that within the third triangle, and particularly in the struggle between Netzach and Hod, one can see the distinct difference of attitude between the Kabbalist and the rest of the world. The same can be said of the Gnostic. Within both of these teachings, the Kabbalah and Gnosticism, reason and logic are distrusted. The reasons given for such distrust is similar: that they inhibit the abilities of natural man. Viewing such an attitude from the present day viewpoint one might say that their idea of God is even different from that of the average person's. To Kabbalists and Gnostics God does not restrict man but lets him improve himself through knowledge. Whereas, to the average person God does the restricting, or is it the person who makes God do the restricting? The Kabbalah has been accepted into Western occult ceremonies and practices, and vice versa. In the sixteenth century symbols of alchemy were embodied into the Christian Kabbalah. The Christian Kabbalah is said to have been used to prove the divinity of Christ. Aleister Crowley adapted the ranks or grades in his magical organization, the A.A., or Astrum Argentium, the Silver Star, to correspond to the sephirots of the sephiroth. The Kabbalah has also been related to numerology, the Tarot and astrology although some criticize the relationship is not a perfect match. The Kabbalistic idea that God contains all ideas and their contradictions definitely forms the bases for the magical laws of polarity and synthesis. Both laws are based on the theoretical assumption that all ideas or conceptions contain their opposites, examples of these are: white and black, up and down, right and left. The essence of each thing also contains the essence of its opposite. A typical clear, but not too magical, illustration is that a black ink pen does not show up too good on a black or dark colored background. It requires a white or light background to bring out the illustrious nature of the black ink. Here the opposites compliment each other to produce the writing or drawing. A.G.H.
Sources: 4, 29, 44, 45. For more information, try: Kabbalah: The Way of the Jewish Mystic, and Colin's Kabbalah Links |
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